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ISSN Electrónico: 2215-3470 UNICIENCIA Vol. 33, N° 1, pp. 101-117. Enero-Junio, 2019
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15359/ru.33-1.8 URL: www.revistas.una.ac.cr/uniciencia
Correo electrónico: revistauniciencia@una.cr
Towards an Integrated Approach of
Conducting Fungal Research in
Costa Rica
Hacia un enfoque integrado de investigación micológica en Costa Rica
Em direção a um enfoque integrado de pesquisa micológica na Costa Rica
Carlos Rojas-Alvarado Randall Valverde-González
carlos.rojasalvarado@ucr.ac.cr valverde1589@gmail.com
Instituto de Investigaciones en Ingeniería y Instituto de Investigaciones en Ingeniería
Finca Experimental Interdisciplinaria de Modelos Universidad de Costa Rica
Agroecológicos San José, Costa Rica
Universidad de Costa Rica Orcid: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4041-5476
San José, Costa Rica
Orcid: http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7968-4833
Recibido-Received: 22/feb/2018 • Corregido-Corrected: 4/jun /2018.
Aceptado-Accepted: 13/ago/2018 • Publicado-Published: 31/ene /2019.
Abstract
Costa Rica is a small country in Central America with a recent history of fungal research. However, comparative
differences with other territories in the Mesoamerican Biodiversity Hotspot region have promoted the study
of fungi and the integration of fungal information with natural resource management. Even though there is
still a large number of multidisciplinary aspects to cover in Costa Rica for robust incorporation of fungal data
in conservation and political and developmental agendas, regional advantages have allowed this country
to move towards such goal more rapidly than other countries in this part of the world. Mycoliteracy-centered
and citizen science initiatives seem to be the next step in order to normalize disparities in fungal perception
across regions within the country and promote social interaction with fungi. However, in general terms, the
Costa Rican society seems to be aware of the potential of fungi as a source of food and medicines and their
remarkable contribution through ecosystem services. In this manner, fungal conservation and management
seem easier to conduct in this territory than in other regions of the world where less information on fungi
has reached the general population.
Keywords: bioliteracy; Central America; fungi; natural resources
Resumen
Costa Rica es un país pequeño en la región centroamericana, con una reciente historia de investigación
micológica. Sin embargo, algunas diferencias comparativas con otros países de la región biológica
Carlos Rojas-Alvarado y Randall Valverde- González 101
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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15359/ru.33-1.8
mesoamericana han promovido el estudio de los hongos y su integración con el manejo de los recursos
naturales. Aun cuando todavía existe un sinnúmero de elementos por cubrir en Costa Rica, para una
incorporación robusta de datos micológicos en la conservación y el desarrollo de agendas políticas
UNICIENCIA Vol. 33, N°. 1, pp. 101-117. Enero-Junio, 2019 • URL: www.revistas.una.ac.cr/uniciencia • Correo electrónico: revistauniciencia@una.cr
sobre recursos naturales, algunas ventajas regionales han permitido que este país avance hacia tal
objetivo más rápidamente que otros. Iniciativas de micoalfabetización y ciencia popular parecen ser los
siguientes pasos para normalizar desequilibrios en la percepción sobre los hongos, que tienen diferentes
regiones en Costa Rica, con el propósito de instar interacciones con estos organismos. No obstante, en
términos generales, la sociedad costarricense parece estar más atenta al potencial de los hongos como
fuente alimenticia y medicinal, al igual que a reconocer el rol de dichos organismos de facilitar servicios
ecosistémicos. De esta forma, la conservación de hongos y su manejo parecen ser más fáciles de llevarse
a cabo en este territorio que en otras áreas del mundo, donde mucho menos información sobre ellos ha
llegado a la población general.
Palabras claves: alfabetización biológica; Centroamérica; hongos; recursos naturales.
Resumo
A Costa Rica é um país pequeno localizado na região centro-americana, com uma recente história de pesquisa
micológica. Porém, algumas diferenças comparativas com outros países da região biológica mesoamericana
têm promovido o estudo dos fungos e sua integração com o manejo dos recursos naturais. Ainda que
exista inumeráveis elementos a serem cobertos na Costa Rica para uma incorporação robusta de dados
micológicos na conservação e no desenvolvimento de agendas políticas sobre recursos naturais, algumas
vantagens regionais têm permitido que este país avance em direção a este objetivo mais rapidamente do
que outros. Iniciativas de alfabetização micológica e ciência popular parecem ser os seguintes passos para
normalizar desequilíbrios na percepção sobre os fungos existentes em diferentes regiões da Costa Rica,
com o propósito de instar interações com estes organismos. Não obstante, em termos gerais, a sociedade
costarriquenha parece estar mais atenta ao potencial dos fungos como fonte alimentar e medicinal, assim
como ao reconhecimento do papel de estes organismos facilitarem os serviços ecossistêmicos. Desta forma,
a conservação de fungos e seu manejo parecem ser mais fáceis de serem levados a cabo neste território do
que em outras áreas do mundo, onde muito menos informação sobre eles chegaram à população geral.
Palavras-chaves: alfabetização biológica; América Central; fungos; recursos naturais.
T
he study of fungi in Costa Rica is the history and potential of this discipline
very recent in comparison with other for integrated future research with applied
countries in the world. Even for stan- benefits for Costa Rica and other countries
dards within the Neotropical region, myco- with similar conditions. This paper also fo-
logy in Costa Rica became established later cuses on the attempts to carry out interdisci-
than in other territories. However, the cu- plinary and multi-institutional mycological
rrent extent of mycology and the develop- work in Costa Rica with support from pu-
ments of the last three decades have allowed blic Costa Rican institutions.
Costa Rican mycology to be recognized in-
ternationally. This review briefly examines
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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15359/ru.33-1.8
The Multidisciplinary Extent of ta Rica´s School of Biology (García, 2009),
Fungal Research in Costa Rica is remarkable in this sense since he founded
the mycology section at that venue during
Fungi have been said to be more di- the 1960s. Some decades later, however,
UNICIENCIA Vol. 33, N°. 1, pp. 101-117. Enero-Junio, 2019 • URL: www.revistas.una.ac.cr/uniciencia • Correo electrónico: revistauniciencia@una.cr
verse in tropical regions (Aime and Brear- the local researchers Marissia Nassar, Ana
ley, 2012), but estimates on the number of Victoria Lizano, Luis Diego Gómez-Pigna-
potential species in these areas of the planet taro, and Julieta Carranza were responsible
have yet to be revised (Hawskworth, 2012). for training the current generation of Costa
Modern techniques of study have created Rican mycologists. Currently, Priscila Cha-
a revolution in both the rate of description verri and Melissa Mardones carry out their
of new species and the use of fungi for work as part of highly-qualified internatio-
bioprospective research. Ironically, most of nal teams.
the tropical regions in the world, particular- Even though the history of mycologi-
ly in Africa, still lack basic elements to cope cal study in Costa Rica is very recent, the
with the increasing demand to study fungi development of mycological research in
(see Gryzenhout et al., 2012). The most this territory has been more prominent than
important of those elements is perhaps the in other countries within the Central Ame-
availability of qualified personnel conduc- rican region (see earlier prominent studies
ting research according to local interests. In such as Singer and Gómez-Pignataro 1984;
Latin America, for example, some countries Gómez-Pignataro, 1996). Such a result is a
such as Costa Rica have had such human partial product of a strong research-orien-
element present during the last 50 years or ted academia, better comparative research
so, and mycological research, albeit limited infrastructure than other regional countries,
in some ways, has rapidly progressed du- political stability, and more developed his-
ring this time. torical-professional networks. The develop-
As it was the case in many other terri- ment of research on myxogastrids, a group
tories, earlier studies of fungi in Costa Rica of amoebae once considered part of the fun-
focused on the documentation of terrestrial gi, is an example of that type of coordinated
macroscopic forms (i.e., Rowlee, 1924; Ste- effort taking place in Costa Rica during the
vens, 1927; Gray and Dodge, 1934). More last 50 years (Rojas and Doss, 2013).
complex analyses were carried out later Estimates show that there are about
(i.e., Farrow, 1954; Denison, 1963; Bazan 3,800 species of fungi recorded in Costa
and Segura, 1970), but still within the fra- Rican lands (Obando, 2007). This number
mework of biodiversity studies. Foreign accounts for about 6% of what it is expec-
researchers have conducted most of these ted in Costa Rican territory and about 5% of
studies, but these studies have allowed the what it is known in the world today (Obando,
Costa Rican academy to develop an interest 2013). As a reference, the Global Transboun-
in mycology. The latter derived in profes- dary Conservation Network (www.tbpa.net)
sional training that allowed local resear- acknowledges that the Mesoamerican Biodi-
chers to start developing research projects versity Hotspot, where Costa Rica is located,
independently. For instance, the effort of may have up to 10% of the global biodiver-
the local researcher José Alberto Sáenz, a sity. Considering that fungi in most of the
founding member of the University of Cos- regional territories have not been studied as
Carlos Rojas-Alvarado y Randall Valverde- González 103
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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15359/ru.33-1.8
much as in Costa Rica (even in some of the The effort of the research team at this insti-
biodiversity-rich southern states of Mexico), tution allowed the characterization of about
the potential biodiversity values for the Me- 50,000 specimens of fungi during that time
soamerican region are remarkable. (Vargas, 2016). These specimens protect
UNICIENCIA Vol. 33, N°. 1, pp. 101-117. Enero-Junio, 2019 • URL: www.revistas.una.ac.cr/uniciencia • Correo electrónico: revistauniciencia@una.cr
Of course, the importance of biodi- the biochemical and genetic components of
versity studies relies on the use of data for fungal biodiversity according to Costa Rica
conservation decisions and policy develop- legislation and are currently deposited at the
ment (Margules et al., 2002) in an integrated National Herbarium of Costa Rica (CR) as
manner with socioeconomic development natural heritage of the nation. Along with
and research initiatives. According to Can- the collection of about 5,500 fungal spe-
tú-Salazar and Gastón (2013), a discrepancy cimens at the CR Herbarium (Armando
between biodiversity-rich areas and lands Ruiz-Boyer, pers. comm.) and approxima-
designated for protection does have a strong tely 16,000 specimens at the University of
negative impact promoting truly effective Costa Rica Herbarium (Mitzi Campos, pers.
public conservation efforts. In developing comm.), Costa Rica has the largest scientific
regions like Mesoamerica, such discon- collection of fungi in Central America with
nection may have enormous consequences about 1.4 specimens per square kilometer of
when ecosystem services and bioprospec- terrestrial land. As a collateral reference of
tion studies are considered. In Costa Rica, the work carried out on fungi, Costa Rica is
the Biodiversity Law (Ley 7788, 1998) de- also one of the best studied tropical coun-
fined in article 7 that fungi are part of bio- tries in the world in relation to myxogastrids
diversity, and therefore fungal resources (Rojas et al., 2010), with about 25% of the
are fully regulated by law in Costa Rican global diversity of these organisms (Lado et
territory. The simple addition of the word al., in prep).
“fungi” in such law has promoted both fun- Currently, fungal research in Costa
gal research and fungal conservation efforts Rica still covers the basic biodiversity as-
within the country. Even though there is sti- pect (Desai et al., 2016, Coronado-Ruiz et
ll much work to do, Costa Rica counts on al., 2018). However, applied bioprospec-
an attractive model of integrated biological tive studies have gained momentum (Ro-
conservation when compared with other jas-Jiménez et al., 2016; Lee et al., 2016)
regional countries. As such, the chapter on after the work of Giselle Tamayo in the Na-
biodiversity in Costa Rica´s periodic report tional Institute of Biodiversity (see Gámez,
about the state of the nation includes an es- 2007). Ecological studies dealing with fun-
timate of fungal biodiversity and guidelines gal dynamics are rare but have also been
for fungal conservation (see Obando, 2013). carried out in the last years (Rojas and
This connection between fungal re- Calvo, 2014; Rojas et al., 2017; Looby and
sources and government policy in Costa Treseder, 2018). Fungal studies for agri-
Rica was promoted rapidly with the work cultural purposes, the focal point of my-
carried out by the researchers Milagro Mata cological research in Costa Rica for many
and Loengrin Umaña at the National Insti- years, are still conducted in this territory
tute of Biodiversity (INBio, www.inbio.ac. (Marín-Chacón et al., 2017; Castro-Chin-
cr), between 1989 and 2015, when the most chilla and Umaña-Rojas, 2017, McGee et
recent conservation legislation was created. al., 2018), and medical mycology has been
Carlos Rojas-Alvarado y Randall Valverde- González 104
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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15359/ru.33-1.8
recently approached for applied purposes recognize the existing links between fungal
(Jaikel-Víquez et al., 2015). Interestingly, components of nature and their own per-
one of the few ethnomycological studies sonal life. For instance, unfamiliarity with
carried out in Costa Rica was also conduc- the role of fungi for soil health in terrestrial
UNICIENCIA Vol. 33, N°. 1, pp. 101-117. Enero-Junio, 2019 • URL: www.revistas.una.ac.cr/uniciencia • Correo electrónico: revistauniciencia@una.cr
ted recently (Molina-Murillo et al., 2015). ecosystems, a traditional function of fungi
Mycology has greatly expanded its on the planet, carries on importance when
range of application across multiple disci- soil management is not considered in pro-
plines in Costa Rica during the last decades. ductive lands. The deprivation of soil fun-
It is simply expected for this trend to conti- gi by extensive soil compaction or overuse
nue in the development of future research. of external nutrients creates an imbalance
Mycology in Costa Rica has evolved to be a in fungal populations that influences the
multidisciplinary field, and fungi have been rest of the ecosystem (see Garbeva et al.,
acknowledged to be important for lifestyles 2011) and increases dependence on external
and modern integrated approaches to mana- inputs. In Costa Rica, significant differen-
ge natural resources such as forests (Moli- ces in the activity of soil microorganisms,
na-Murillo and Smith, 2016). There are still including fungi, have been documented in
several fields of applied study and multiple different productive systems. These records
opportunities to promote the integration of have shown that intensive agricultural prac-
fungal resources with other aspects of mo- tices have a strong negative effect on the ac-
dern life, such as food security, human heal- tivity of microorganisms in the soil (Sibaja
th promotion, and engineering or industry et al., 2018).
applications. Along with the development The simple understanding of natural
of computer science modeling using fungi, processes involving fungi and the provision
these areas represent, the direction where of ecosystem services, mediated by the di-
most of the mycological efforts would pro- fferent species within the group, are still ne-
bably yield quantifiable results for the Costa cessary in most parts of the world, including
Rican society in this part of the 21st century. Costa Rica. Recent multidisciplinary approa-
ches involving specialists in education, tou-
Comparative Fungal Dynamics in rism, biology, public policy, and conserva-
Costa Rican Forests and Potential tion have been set up and will be tested in
the upcoming years. From a biological pers-
for Integrated Management Stra-
pective, strong ecological documentation of
tegies fungal species and assemblages over time is
necessary. However, the design of the latter
Fungi are essential for ecosystem type of studies should also consider national
functioning (Dighton, 2016), and services priorities and regional inequalities to also
provided by working ecosystems are pivotal promote some socioeconomic development
elements of development and lifestyle for during its execution.
human societies (Newbound et al., 2010). Ecological studies on fungi are critical
However, due to a modern personal dis- to reaching tangible conservation guidelines,
connection from natural elements of their since analyses at the ecosystem level, where
surroundings (Nisbet and Zelenski, 2011; fungi are essential, show the importance of
Rojas et al., 2016), most individuals fail to the group more prominently. In Costa Rica,
Carlos Rojas-Alvarado y Randall Valverde- González 105
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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15359/ru.33-1.8
most of this type of studies have been ca- der examination. One of the general areas
rried out in the last three decades. Examples was a seasonally dry forest and the other
of this are the early efforts of Bills and Poli- a premontane wet forest with macroclima-
shook (1994) who studied leaf litter fungal tic differences in rainfall, temperature and
UNICIENCIA Vol. 33, N°. 1, pp. 101-117. Enero-Junio, 2019 • URL: www.revistas.una.ac.cr/uniciencia • Correo electrónico: revistauniciencia@una.cr
dynamics, focusing on fungus-epiphyte asso- cloud cover. For this reason, all plots were
ciations, and Lindblad (2000) who examined instrumented with temperature, atmosphe-
the host specificity of wood-inhabiting fungi. ric humidity, and luminosity loggers; and
More recently, Halling and Mueller (2005) hemispherical photographs were obtained
examined macrofungal associations with for canopy cover characterization perfor-
Quercus forests, Puschendorf et al., (2006) med every three months. At the same in-
studied the relationship between chytrids and terval, field surveys of macrofungi and a
amphibian declines, and Del Olmo-Ruiz and characterization of carbon stocks were ca-
Arnold (2013) documented endophytic fungi rried out in all plots. A complete soil cha-
dynamics associated with ferns. racterization was also performed for all fo-
Interestingly, one of the patterns ob- rest types. The most important results were
served in these studies is that they have fo- summarized in Rojas and Calvo (2014) and
cused on across-kingdom taxonomic rela- Rojas et al., (2017).
tionships rather than ecosystem dynamics. Overall, the two forest patches in the
Even though the former documentation is seasonally dry forest showed lower tree
important for scientific purposes, such re- density values, lower canopies, and less vo-
search does not necessarily generate outco- luminous trees than premontane wet forests.
mes that are translatable into information Similarly, average ground biomass and car-
for human societies to grasp, digest and bon dioxide equivalent units per hectare, an
apply. This phenomenon is a partial con- estimate of potential contribution to carbon
sequence of higher education training in neutrality programs, were lower in the sea-
Biology, in which curricular structures tend sonally dry forests. The average temperatu-
to neglect socioeconomic implications (Ba- re value in the dry forest was 26.6±4.1 ver-
zzul, 2014). In this sense, within biological sus 16.6±1.6 in the premontane wet forest;
or environmental sciences, few studies have and average humidity was 73.6±18.1 versus
been produced in Costa Rica where fungi 78.5±19.9 for the same comparison. Canopy
are documented within the framework of dynamics, average number of seedlings,
ecosystem service provision and potential and luminosity were more variable in the
socioeconomic impact on local societies. seasonally dry forests than in the premon-
During the period 2011–2014, resear- tane forests. From a forestry perspective,
chers at the Engineering Research Institu- carbon stock-related and microenvironmen-
te of the University of Costa Rica started tal values looked better in the premontane
a monitoring project intended to evaluate wet forests despite significant differences in
the dynamics of fungal populations in the temperature (but not in humidity). Howe-
context of forest performance. For this pro- ver, when the fungal component was inclu-
ject, two areas in the country were selected, ded in the analysis, results showed a more
where two different 25- to 30-year-old fo- complex scenario.
rest sections of 0.2 ha were studied, for a Macrofungal dominant forms in the
total of four different forest biosystems un- seasonally dry forests were classified in the
Carlos Rojas-Alvarado y Randall Valverde- González 106
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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15359/ru.33-1.8
genera Collybia and Marasmius, whereas also explained, in detail, the diameter of the
Laccaria and Lactarius dominated the pre- pileus and the hymenial area to biomass ra-
montane wet forests, and no differences in tio for the complete dataset suggesting that
the number of fruiting bodies or total fun- the functional variability of macrofungal
UNICIENCIA Vol. 33, N°. 1, pp. 101-117. Enero-Junio, 2019 • URL: www.revistas.una.ac.cr/uniciencia • Correo electrónico: revistauniciencia@una.cr
gal biomass per hectare were found. In ge- populations was associated with forest per-
neral, soil and wood-associated macrofungi formance. In this case, when fungal data was
had larger reproductive structures but were included in the analysis, it was clear that a
less heavy, in terms of dry weight, in the simplistic forestry-based only perspective
seasonally dry forests than in the premon- would only provide a partial perspective of
tane wet forests. These results were interes- the complete story. Interestingly, when all
ting since dominant forms in seasonally dry the variables calculated in the study were
forests were mostly saprophytic, whereas analyzed over time, differences were obser-
dominant forms in premontane wet forests ved in 2012 versus other years, particularly
were mostly mycorrhizal. Even though my- for the macrofungi documented in the pre-
corrhizal forms were significantly heavier montane wet forests. Considering that 2012
than saprophytic ones, the allocation of bio- was a wet La Niña year on the Pacific coast
mass resources also differed among these of Costa Rica, results suggested that macro-
two. Macrofungi in forest patches with hi- fungal assemblages in the premontane wet
gher carbon-stock values allocated less re- forests (mostly mycorrhizal) were less resi-
sources in the production of hymenial areas lient than those in the seasonally dry forest.
than macrofungi in forests with lower car- It is imperative to study these results more
bon values. The relationship between a hy- thoroughly for management of natural re-
menial area and dry weight was 3.34 mm2/g sources (Figure 1) since they suggested that,
for mycorrhizal versus 8.26 mm2/g for sa- despite the lower carbon-stock value, seaso-
prophytic fungi. Interestingly, the latter nally dry forests in Costa Rica also function
measurement showed strong correlations as resilient environments for microorganis-
with temperature (r=0.99), light intensity ms inhabiting them, fungi among them. In
(r=0.94), and canopy openness (r=0.99). addition, these results also showed that the
Even though most visually appealing for- less resilient mycorrhizal assemblages, a
ms (mycorrhizal) were present in premon- potential source of food, require a differen-
tane wet forests, the ecosystem service, tial management approach.
provided in the form of decomposition by
the more diverse saprophytic forms in the Perception of Fungal Resources
seasonally dry forests, was an important and Lessons for Integrated Mana-
finding of those studies and has not been
gement
considered for forest management plans in
that part of the country.
Empirical information is the source
Further analyses showed that canopy
of science and the primary fuel of scienti-
openness and phosphorus, a forest structu-
fic publications. Despite known limitations
ral variable and a chemical soil parameter,
on communicating science (i.e., Gilgun,
resulted to be the two most important varia-
2005; Besley and Tanner, 2011), most re-
bles explaining the general microclimate of
searchers spend quite some time preparing
the two studied areas. These two variables
documents showing their experimentation
Carlos Rojas-Alvarado y Randall Valverde- González 107
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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15359/ru.33-1.8
results. In academic environments, scienti- in the Costa Rican population. Even though
fic publications are still highly regarded al- the country is geographically located in the
though it has been known for decades that intermediate anthropological area, the point
other forms of information exchange are of confluence of the mycophilic Mesoame-
UNICIENCIA Vol. 33, N°. 1, pp. 101-117. Enero-Junio, 2019 • URL: www.revistas.una.ac.cr/uniciencia • Correo electrónico: revistauniciencia@una.cr
extremely relevant to translate scientific rican region and the mycophobic Chibcha
content to the non-scientific public (Gar- region, few documents have been generated
vey, 1979). Even today, in the internet era, to understand the perceptions of the Costa
when communication is fast and versatile, Rican population towards fungal resources.
there is a disconnection between the scien- This type of non-biological works is highly
tific community and the public (Fischhoff relevant to provide an integrated approach
and Scheufelec, 2014). to manage fungal resources in the country,
In Costa Rica, mycological informa- along with more standard information on
tion has been generated for nonprofessionals fungal biology.
in the form of field guides and textbooks An ongoing effort in the University of
(i.e. Mata, 1999; Mata et al., 2003; Calde- Costa Rica during the last years has permitted
rón, 2005; Mata et al., 2010; Mata and Na- a basic characterization of the population per-
varro, 2010; Chaverri et al., 2010, Carranza ception on fungi. For example, Molina-Mu-
et al., 2017). These documents have been rillo et al., (2015) studied two groups of peo-
extremely useful to increase mycoliteracy ple in university environments in Honduras
Figure 1. Temporal canopy differences in seasonally dry and premontane wet forest
patches of Costa Rica and characteristics of fungal assemblages in them based on Rojas
and Calvo (2014) and Rojas et al. (2017). Note: the present study is the source for the
construction of this figure.
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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.15359/ru.33-1.8
(Mesoamerican) and Costa Rica (Interme- Even though some response distribu-
diate) and attempted to address the reduced tions were different between the two coun-
availability of information at this level in the tries, and some differences were found at
Central American population. The group of the gender level, it was interesting to ob-
UNICIENCIA Vol. 33, N°. 1, pp. 101-117. Enero-Junio, 2019 • URL: www.revistas.una.ac.cr/uniciencia • Correo electrónico: revistauniciencia@una.cr
researchers found that the Costa Rican po- serve that response associations with video
pulation was more aware of ecological func- games (i.e., Mario Bros), television shows
tions performed by fungi, but the Honduran (i.e., The Smurfs), and world events (i.e.,
population was more aware of medicinal nuclear bomb cloud shape) were recorded
uses of fungi. Remarkably, for both popu- equally in both studied groups. For the ma-
lations in the 16-35 age group, participants jority of the participants surveyed, such as-
seemed more aware of ecological processes pects may be part of their daily life consi-
than participants in other age groups. More dering that cable television and video game
Costa Ricans (76%) than Hondurans (48%) consoles are common among individuals
responded to have consumed mushrooms in attending college worldwide (Jacobsen and
the month before the survey was conducted. Forste, 2011).
Interestingly, 52% of Hondurans had never Results from that study suggested that
consumed mushrooms versus only 25% of exposure to formal education or previous
Costa Ricans. These results were interes- cultural background in the studied groups
ting considering that Costa Rica was thou- may not have played such an important role
ght to be more mycophobic than Honduras, in shaping perceptional views about fungi as
but they may point to the documented high social aspects have. Even though both stu-
level of self-perceived green mentality in died groups have different historical herita-
Costa Rica that actually represents a double ge and levels of emotional proximity with
discourse in practice (Courvisanos and Jain, natural resources, these results showed no
2006), which may have biased the answers. significant differences in their perceptional
When participants were asked to men- patterns toward fungi. As such, it seemed
tally associate fungi and one aspect of their that homogeneity within urban areas due to
lifestyle, some differences were recorded by common globalized stimuli might have pla-
gender. The most common answers provi- yed a more prominent role in determining
ded by female participants were related to natural interactions. This is a very important
venomous and hallucinogenic aspects of argument to consider since the development
fungal use, whereas males’ answers were of management strategies in relation with
more commonly related to characteristics of natural resources should respect particular
fungi’s edibility and their capacity to be used socioeconomic and historical differences.
as food. Interestingly, responses related to For Costa Rica, an unpublished study,
hallucinogenic uses increased with the age carried out with more detail in 11 popula-
of the participants. When asked about their tion centers across the country, also showed
preference for either animals, plants or fun- that regional differences exist within a sma-
gi, results showed that about 62% of all par- ll territory. In this case, when participants
ticipants mentioned preferring animals and were asked if they knew what fungi were,
about 43% preferred plants, leaving only most surveyed people across the country
5% of answers for fungal preference over responded positively, but the lowest percen-
the other two groups of organisms. tages (79% and 76%) of positive responses
Carlos Rojas-Alvarado y Randall Valverde- González 109
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were found in the only part of Costa Rica cations along the dryer Pacific showed the
with a Mesoamerican cultural background. smallest percentages (average of 34% of
The corresponding area associated with tho- answers). At the same time, locations on the
se responses is located in the lowlands of Caribbean coast were associated with the
UNICIENCIA Vol. 33, N°. 1, pp. 101-117. Enero-Junio, 2019 • URL: www.revistas.una.ac.cr/uniciencia • Correo electrónico: revistauniciencia@una.cr
the dry forest region of Costa Rica, which is highest percentage of respondents consu-
similar in biological context to some areas ming fungi at least once a month (average of
of the Mexican state of Oaxaca, but drama- 41% of answers), and respondents in towns
tically different in the social perception on located on the Pacific side of Costa Rica
fungi, for example. Such type of differen- showed the lowest values of monthly fungal
ces has been documented, however, around consumption (average of 32% of answers).
deep social issues within mycophilic re- The significant correlation between repor-
gions, between low and high elevation areas, ted consumption of fungi and perceptional
with different forest ecosystems as well (see value of fungi as a source of food was mo-
Thompson 1970). Similarly, when partici- derately high (r=0.71), suggesting that, in
pants were asked if fungi were important for this particular aspect, the Costa Rican so-
ecosystem functions, a vast majority answe- ciety might have learned the value of fungi
red positively. However, communities loca- as a source of food by ingesting the source
ted along the north and central Pacific coast, itself. The latter seems to be more prevalent
where seasonally dry forests occur, showed in population centers with wet and rain fo-
the lowest percentages of positive respon- rests than in those with dry forests.
ses (63% in average versus 82% for highly The examples provided herein are
educated communities in the center of the simple demonstrations that surveys could
country). Ironically, when participants were be useful to determine guidelines for na-
given four real ecological roles of fungi in tural resource management (see Brown,
forests, 45% failed to recognize at least two 2004) and public interaction with fungi.
of those roles, and the largest percentage of In the case of this group of organisms, this
participants correctly associating three or exercise has been conducted in Costa Rica
four roles (33% in average) were found in for the first time in recent years, and the
highly educated regions. Despite the latter, complete analyses have not been published
no correlations were found between the hu- yet. However, some of the information con-
man development index of the population tained in these public opinion assessments
centers and the answer distribution found in is important to understand sociocultural,
the study, suggesting that responses have a economic, and historical links of particular
cultural background more than a socioeco- sectors of the population with a number of
nomic one. natural resources. Such a task of understa-
When participants were asked about ding the human-nature interaction is easier
the most important use of fungi for human to implement for widely valued resources
lifestyles, their value as a source of food and such as water and air (Bergstrom and Ran-
medicines was provided by 44% and 23% dall, 2016), and harder for poorly known
of all participants. Interestingly, Caribbean biological groups such as the fungi. Howe-
centers with tropical rainforest showed the ver, those constraints have shown that in the
highest values (an average of 55% of all Costa Rican case, there are opportunities of
answers in their respective town), and lo- mycoliteracy in most areas of the country
Carlos Rojas-Alvarado y Randall Valverde- González 110
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and formal biological research could also be be missed these days. For instance, from a
reinterpreted to reach those populations (see series of informative videos produced by
Stone, 2017). the authors of this chapter and uploaded to a
popular online platform, one specific video
UNICIENCIA Vol. 33, N°. 1, pp. 101-117. Enero-Junio, 2019 • URL: www.revistas.una.ac.cr/uniciencia • Correo electrónico: revistauniciencia@una.cr
Lessons from Fungal Research in on the biology of Amanita muscaria sen-
the Context of Development and su lato has received 100 times more visits
(between 2014 and 2017) than other 30 vi-
Conservation of Natural Resources
deos produced on other topics. In the end,
the importance of active research in a field
In 2011, Costa Rica held the Latin
of study for the development of local socie-
American Mycological Congress organized
ties, as mentioned earlier, is the translation
by the Latin American Mycological Asso-
of scientific information into products that
ciation. This is the most important interna-
those societies can use for purposes ranging
tional event on mycology in the region, and
in all disciplines of human knowledge.
it was an accomplishment to organize such
For Costa Rica, this translation of
event in this country at that time. An execu-
active research into tangible products, pu-
tive decree from the President of Costa Rica
blicly available online, seems to have been
declared this an event of public interest (De-
successful in the last years. As a proxy to
creto ejecutivo 36573-MICIT, 2011). Such
evaluate such availability of information,
meeting was possible thanks to academic
when a search (in Spanish) was performed
and government support, a critical number
on Google Scholar looking for resources
of internal researchers working on myco-
dealing with fungi in association with the
logical issues, and the fact that, within the
different countries in Central America and
Mesoamerican biodiversity region, Costa
Mexico, it was evident that Costa Rica had
Rica was recognized as one of the growing
carried out this work more efficiently than
centers of fungal studies. The most impor-
the average for the other regional countries
tant aspect brought into the country by this
(Figure 2). As a comparison, Mexico is very
event, however, was the promotion of my-
rich in fungal resources and human-fungi
cology among the younger generation of
interactions, and mycological studies are
Costa Ricans that had not been exposed to
usually more publicized than in other parts
the topic.
of Latin America due to the mycophilic
This exposure to fungi during the 21st
character of the Mexican population. Even
century, particularly with online resources,
though there are obvious limitations to the
should be carried out with multimodal te-
analysis of results from this type of public
chniques (see Jewitt, 2012). The availability
platforms on the internet, they can also pro-
of information on the internet is an impor-
vide interesting data for comparison purpo-
tant aspect to consider in the development
ses with more professional and specialized
of longterm scientific programs, given the
databases (Falagas et al., 2008). However,
increased dependence on internet resources
in the end, the availability of fungal informa-
(Sheenan and Young, 2012). The advanta-
tion in public and easy-to-use platforms has a
ge of fungi is that they are appealing and
higher potential of reaching non-specialized
interesting for many people, and the oppor-
public (non-mycologists), and it is very im-
tunity to develop these multimodal approa-
portant for educational purposes.
ches to communicate mycology should not
Carlos Rojas-Alvarado y Randall Valverde- González 111
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Despite the latter, someone still must the use and value of regional fungi by auto-
generate such information and resour- chthonous populations.
ces and it seems that established groups Using information from the Universi-
(professional and non-professional) are ty of Costa Rica´s Research Office, which
UNICIENCIA Vol. 33, N°. 1, pp. 101-117. Enero-Junio, 2019 • URL: www.revistas.una.ac.cr/uniciencia • Correo electrónico: revistauniciencia@una.cr
more productive for the communication of records thematic research in Costa Rica sin-
science, including mycology, when they ce 1975 (www.vinv.ucr.ac.cr), it seems clear
become the active participants of the pro- that fungal studies in this country, during
cess (see Pagani and Malacarne, 2017). the last 40 years, have not been designed to
However, for these approaches to take pla- reach the public. For example, only 15% of
ce effectively, in an equilibrated manner, proposed projects on fungi have had a social
non-professional groups should also exist application component and none of the pro-
to counterbalance the academic-based jects during that time have included citizen
(and academically-biased) delivery of in- science promotion of some kind. As such,
formation from fungal researchers. In this the connectivity between mycology and the
sense, the promotion of mycology should triple helix, a socioeconomic approach pro-
reach all strata of societies with differential posed for developing countries that seeks
approaches, so collective efforts compen- to link academia, productive sector and go-
sate specific biases. vernments (see Molina-Murillo and Rojas,
In Costa Rica, one limitation of this 2015), has been very limited in Costa Rica.
active process of mycological communica- Overall, mycology in Costa Rica has
tion has been the reserved role of nonpro- focused on the primary basic biological
fessionals and the reduced promotion of aspects. In this sense, local and foreign
citizen science for the generation of infor- researchers in the country have generated
mation. These two types of contribution are important information to understand taxo-
acknowledged to be important factors pro- nomic and distributional patterns of fungi.
moting science in societies (Bonney et al., Even though fungal studies in the coun-
2014; Bonney et al., 2015). Even though try have had a multidisciplinary approach
the field guides on fungi produced by the in the present century, they still lack real
National Institute of Biodiversity (INBio) applicability and connectivity with Costa
(Mata, 1999; Mata et al., 2003, Chaverri et Rica´s development strategy. However, in
al., 2010), and several websites produced in terms of fungal conservation and adminis-
recent decades have been important contri- tration of fungal resources, this country
butors to disseminate information on fungi has established a series of public measu-
in the country, public empowerment and rements to include fungi in non-academic
“ownership” of mycological information by agendas. The latter has positioned Costa
nonprofessionals have not been well stimu- Rica slightly ahead of other countries in
lated in this territory. Unfortunately, public the same region in terms of integrating fun-
offices in charge of natural resources (inclu- gi in the management of nature. For this and
ding fungi) integration with social stakehol- other initiatives, from a global perspective
ders have placed their interest in the disse- including other taxonomic groups, Costa
mination of information on the cultivation Rica has been used as a case study in Latin
of introduced fungal species rather than on America (Zimmerer, 2011).
the rescue of local knowledge in relation to
Carlos Rojas-Alvarado y Randall Valverde- González 112
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Figure 2. Availability of results in response to a search for fungi in Google Scholar
during the period 1990-2017 for Mexico, Costa Rica and the average of Central American
countries excluding Costa Rica. All trend lines are shown and correspond to quadratic
functions with parametric correlation values higher than 0.90. Note: the present study is the
UNICIENCIA Vol. 33, N°. 1, pp. 101-117. Enero-Junio, 2019 • URL: www.revistas.una.ac.cr/uniciencia • Correo electrónico: revistauniciencia@una.cr
source for the construction of this figure.
Recent ecological studies carried out food or as part of industrial applications could
in the country have generated important in- be interesting to identify in Costa Rica for the
formation to understand fungal dynamics in development of future applications. Interes-
the context of ecosystem services and climate tingly, the issues exposed herein, focused on
change. Also, opinion studies carried out in the Costa Rican case, are examples of simi-
Costa Rica have been useful to analyze so- lar matters taking place in other parts of the
cioeconomic, cultural, and gender-based per- world. Hopefully, shared lessons can lead to
ceptional views in the different regions of the important accomplishments beyond political
country. The interaction of these two research borders for the benefit of everyone someday.
lines is imperative for an effective and mo-
dern approach to manage fungal resources in Acknowledgements
such territory. However, inequalities in my-
coliteracy across Costa Rica should be ad- We would like to extend our gratitude
dressed with multiapproach channels, among to Pedro Rojas and Sergio Molina-Murillo for
which the internet is prominent. With a future their help collecting some of the data used in
promotion of citizen science-based research this review. The field work that generated the
and community-based projects involving fun- information presented herein was funded by
gi, maybe social proximity to this group of projects 731-B2-222, 731-B4-249, and 731-
organisms would allow more effective inte- B5-059 from Vicerrectoría de Investigación
raction with them. Potential entrepreneurs se- at the University of Costa Rica.
tting up initiatives using fungi as a source of
Carlos Rojas-Alvarado y Randall Valverde- González 113
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